Download PDF IMMANUEL KANT Theoretical philosophy, I7SS-I770 TRANSLATED AND EDITED BY DAVID WALFORD
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Sinopsis
Immanuel Kant was born in Konigsberg on 22 April 1724 to Pietist parents of modest means. His precociousness attracted the attention of Franz Albert Schultz (1692-1763), who arranged for the eight-year-old boy to enter the Collegium Fridericianum, of which he was the rector. The young Kant was thus exposed to the powerful spiritual and intellectual influence of Schultz, who was both a Pietist and a follower of Wolff, under whom he had studied at Halle. Kant's eight years at the Fridericianum were devoted largely to the study of classical languages (especially Latin) and religion. His final years at school were overshadowed by the death of his mother in 1737.
In 1740, the sixteen-year-old Kant began his studies at the Herzog Albrecht University in Konigsberg. He seems to have read mathematics, natural science, and philosophy. The crucial influence on Kant during this period was that of Martin Knutzen (1713-51). Only eleven years older than Kant, Knutzen likewise was both a Pietist and a follower of Wolff. He was also a Newtonian, and he introduced Kant to the new physics. Kant attended Knutzen's lectures on mathematics, astronomy, and natural science, and it was probably Knutzen who led Kant to the theme of his first work, Living Forces (1747).
The death of his father and the completion of Living Forces in 1746 marked the end of Kant's six years as a student at Konigsberg. Straitened financial circumstances constrained the twenty-four-year-old Kant to interrupt his university career for some eight years to take employment as a tutor with a succession of families in the Konigsberg area. He clearly contrived to combine his philosophical and scientific interests with his tutorial duties, for his return to Konigsberg in 1754 was marked by the publication of two short works of considerable scientific originality and one major work of indisputable scientific genius, Universal Natural History (1755), in which Kant, with characteristic self-assurance, out-Newtoned Newton by offering a purely mechanical account of the structure and motions of the universe. The bankruptcy of the printer, however, prevented this e~traordinary work from reaching a wider public.
Download PDF Immanuel Kant Universal Natural History and Theory of the Heavens or An Essay on the Constitution and the Mechanical Origin of the Entire Structure of the Universe Based on Newtonian Principles by Ian Johnston
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Sinopsis
Outline of a general systematic arrangement among the fixed stars, derived from the phenomenon of the Milky Way. Similarity of this system of fixed stars to the planetary system. Discovery of many such systems, showing up in the expanse of the heavens in the form of elliptical shapes. New idea about the systematic arrangement of the entire creation.
Conclusion. Probable assumption about more planets beyond Saturn, deduced from the law according to which planetary eccentricity increases with distance.
Content
- Basic Principles of Newtonian Philosophy
- Systematic Arrangement of the Fixed Stars
- Section One: Origin of the Planetary World Structure
- Section Two: Densities of Different Planets
- Section Three: Eccentricity of Planetary Orbits and Comets
- Section Four: Origin of the Moon and Axial Rotation of Planets
- Section Five: Origin of Saturn’s Ring
- Section Six: Lights of the Zodiac
- Section Seven: Entire Extent of Creation
- Supplement to Section Seven: History of the Sun
- Section Eight: Correctness of the Mechanical Doctrine
- Comparison Between the Inhabitants of the Stars
Download PDF Analytical Chemistry Theoretical and Metrological Fundamentals by K. Danzer
Sinopsis
Analytical chemistry is one of the oldest scientiˇc disciplines. Its history can be traced back to the ancient Egyptians, about four to ˇve thousand years ago (Szabadvary [1966], Malissa [1987], Yordanov [1987]). But notwithstanding its long history, analytical chemistry is always an essential factor in the development of modern scientiˇc and industrialised society. The development of chemistry itself has progressed signiˇcantly by analytical ˇndings over several centuries. Fundamental knowledge of general chemistry is based on analytical studies, the laws of simple and multiple proportions as well as the law of mass action. Most of the chemical elements have been discovered by the application of analytical chemistry, at ˇrst by means of chemical methods, but in the last 150 years mainly by physical methods. Especially spectacular were the spectroscopic discoveries of rubidium and caesium by Bunsen and Kirchhoff, indium by Reich and Richter, helium by Janssen, Lockyer, and Frankland, and rhenium by Noddack and Tacke. Also, nuclear ˇssion became evident as Hahn and Strassmann carefully analyzed the products of neutron-bombarded uranium.
In recent times, analytical chemistry has stimulated not only chemistry but many ˇelds of science, technology and society. Conversely, analytical chemistry itself has always been heavily in uenced by ˇelds like nuclear engineering, materials science, environmental protection, biology, and medicine. Figure 1.1 shows by which challenges analytical chemistry has been stimulated to improved performances within the last half century. Wilhelm Ostwald [1894], who published the ˇrst comprehensive textbook on analytical chemistry, emphasized in it the service function of analytical chemistry. This fact has not changed until now. Interactions with all the ˇelds of application have always had a promoting in uence on analytical chemistry.
Content
- Object of Analytical Chemistry
- The Analytical Process
- Signals in Analytical Chemistry
- Statistical Evaluation of Analytical Results
- Studying In uences and Optimizing Analytical Procedure
- Calibration in Analytical Chemistry
- Analytical Performance Characteristics
- Presentation, Interpretation and Validation of Analytical Results
- Assessment of Analytical Information
Download PDF Cloud Computing Theory and Practice by Dan C. Marinescu
Sinopsis
The last decades have reinforced the idea that information processing can be done more efficiently centrally, on large farms of computing and storage systems accessible via the Internet. When computing resources in distant data centers are used rather than local computing systems, we talk about network-centric computing and network-centric content. Advancements in networking and other areas are responsible for the acceptance of the two new computing models and led to the grid computing movement in the early 1990s and, since 2005, to utility computing and cloud computing. In utility computing the hardware and software resources are concentrated in large data centers and users can pay as they consume computing, storage, and communication resources. Utility computing often requires a cloud-like infrastructure, but its focus is on the business model for providing the computing services. Cloud computing is a path to utility computing embraced by major IT companies such as Amazon, Apple, Google, HP, IBM, Microsoft, Oracle, and others.
Cloud computing delivery models, deployment models, defining attributes, resources, and organization of the infrastructure discussed in this chapter are summarized in Figure 1.1. There are three cloud delivery models: Software-as-a-Service (SaaS), Platform-as-a-Service (PaaS), and Infrastructure-as-a- Service (IaaS), deployed as public, private, community, and hybrid clouds.
Content
- Introduction
- Parallel and Distributed Systems
- Cloud Infrastructure
- Cloud Computing: Applications and Paradigms
- Cloud Resource Virtualization
- Cloud Resource Management and Scheduling
- Networking Support
- Storage Systems
- Cloud Security
- Complex Systems and Self-Organization
- Cloud Application Development
Download PDF CORPORATE FINANCE THEORY AND PRACTICE Second Edition by Pierre Vernimmen
Sinopsis
For some Vernimmen readers, this will be your first financial crisis. It’s not the first we’ve seen and it won’t be the last. One thing we can be sure of, though, is that as long as the human species continues to inhabit planet Earth, we will continue to see the rise of speculative bubbles which will inevitably burst and financial crises will follow, as sure as night follows day.
Human nature being what it is, we are not cold, disembodied, perfectly rational beings as all of those very useful but highly simplified models would have us believe. Human beings are often prone to sloth, greed and fear, three key elements for creating a fertile environment in which bubbles and crises flourish. Behavioural finance (see p. 274) does make it easier to create more realistic models of choices and decisions made by individuals and to predict the occurrence of excessive euphoria or irrational gloom or to explain it after it has occurred (which is always easier!). But behavioural finance is in its infancy and researchers in this field still have a lot of work ahead of them. The origin of the financial crisis that began in 2007 is a textbook case. What we have here are greedy investors seeking increasingly higher returns, who are never satisfied when they have enough and always want more. It’s a pity that there are people like that about, but there you go.
So, banks started granting mortgages to people who had in the past not qualified for a mortgage, convinced that if, in the (likely) event that these borrowers on precarious incomes were unable to meet their repayments, the properties could be sold and the mortgage paid off, since there was only one way property prices could go and that was up − remember? This created a whole class of subprime borrowers. Along the same lines, LBOs were carried out with debt at increasingly higher multiples of the target’s EBITDA (see p. 926) and with capitalised interest, as the financial structuring was so tight that the target was unable to pay its financial expenses. This meant that virtually all of the debt could only be repaid when the company was sold. Subprimes were introduced into high quality bond or money market funds in order to boost their performances without altering the description of the mutual funds.With the official approval of the regulator, bank assets were transferred to special purpose deconsolidated vehicles (SIVs) where they could be financed using more debt than was allowed under the regulations. Banks could thus boost their earnings and returns by using the leverage effect (see p. 235).
In finance, risk and return are two sides of the same coin. Higher returns can only be achieved at the price of higher risk. And if the risks are higher, the likelihood of them materialising is higher too. This is a fact of life you should never forget or you may live to regret it sorely (see Chapter 21).
Content
- FINANCIAL ANALYSIS
- FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS IN FINANCIAL ANALYSIS
- FINANCIAL ANALYSIS AND FORECASTING
- INVESTMENT ANALYSIS
- INVESTMENT DECISION RULES
- THE RISK OF SECURITIES AND THE COST OF CAPITAL
- FINANCIAL SECURITIES
- CORPORATE FINANCIAL POLICIES
- VALUE
- CAPITAL STRUCTURE POLICIES
- EQUITY CAPITAL AND DIVIDENDS
- FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT
- CORPORATE GOVERNANCE AND FINANCIAL ENGINEERING
- MANAGING CASH FLOWS AND FINANCIAL RISKS
Download PDF Political Theory Text Book for Class XI
Sinopsis
Human beings are unique in two respects: they possess reason and the ability to reflect on their actions. They also have the capacity to use language and communicate with each other. Unlike other species, they can express their innermost thoughts and desires; they can share their ideas and discuss what they consider to be good and desirable. Political theory has its roots in these twin aspects of the human self. It analyzes certain basic questions such as how should society be organized? Why do we need government? What is the best form of government? Does law limit our freedom? What does the state owe its citizens? What do we owe each other as citizens?
Political theory examines questions of this kind and systematically thinks about the values that inform political life values such as freedom, equality and justice. It explains the meanings and significance of these and other related concepts. It clarifies the existing definitions of these concepts by focusing on some major political thinkers of the past and present. It also examines the extent to which freedom or equality are actually present
in the institutions that we participate in everyday such as schools, shops, buses or trains or government offices. At an advanced level, it looks at whether existing definitions are adequate and how existing institutions (government, bureaucracy) and policy practices must be modified to become more democratic. The objective of political theory is to train citizens to think rationally about political
in the institutions that we participate in everyday such as schools, shops, buses or trains or government offices. At an advanced level, it looks at whether existing definitions are adequate and how existing institutions (government, bureaucracy) and policy practices must be modified to become more democratic. The objective of political theory is to train citizens to think rationally about political
Content
- Political Theory: An Introduction
- Freedom
- Equality
- Social Justice
- Rights
- Citizenship
- Nationalism
- Securalism
- Peace
- Development
Download PDF Plant Tissue Culture: Theory and Practice, a Revised Edition by S.S Bhojwani
Sinopsis
One of the most important biological events in the life cycle of an organism is fertilization, which involves the fusion of two gametes of opposite sex or strain resulting in the formation of a zygote. From this singlecelled zygote originates the entire multicellular and multiorganed body of a higher organism; may it be a flowering plant or a human body. In a flowering plant, for example, structures as morphologically and functionally diverse as underground roots, green photosynthesizing leaves, and beautiful flowers all arise from the single-celled zygote through millions of mitoses. The latter process is a type of cell division characterized by identical products. Theoretically, therefore, all the cells in a plant body, whether residing in the flowers, conducting tissues or root tips, should have received the same genetic material as originally present in the zygote. All this would then suggest that there must be some other factor(s) superimposed on the genetic characteristics of cells which bring about this vast variation expressed by the genetically identical cells. The process involved in the manifestation of these variations is called differentiation. The morphological differentiation is actually preceded by certain cellular and subcellular changes. A pertinent question that arises at this stage is: whether the cellular changes underlying differentiation of various types of cells are permanent and, consequently, irreversible, or whether it is merely a social feature in which a cell undergoes an adaptive change to suit the functional need of the organism in general and the organ in particular. The fact that during the normal life cycle of a plant a cell which has differentiated into a palisade cell dies as a palisade cell and an epidermal cell does not revert to meristemic state may suggest that the events leading to differentiation are of a permanent nature. However, the classic experiments of Vochting on polarity in cuttings, carried out in 1878, suggest otherwise. He observed that all cells along the stem length are capable of forming roots as well as shoots, but their destiny is decided by their relative position in the cutting. The best way to answer this question and understand more about the inter-relationship between different cells of an organ and different organs of an organism would, however, be to remove them from the influence of their neighbouring cells and tissues and grow them in isolation on nutrient media. To put it in the words of the great German botanist Gottlieb Haberlandt (1854-1945), now aptly regarded as the father of plant tissue culture, 'To my knowledge, no systematically organized attempts to culture isolated vegetative cells from higher plants in simple nutrient solutions have been made. Yet the results of such culture experiments should give some interesting insight to the properties and potentialities which the cell as an elementary organism possesses. Moreover, it would provide information about the inter-relationships and complementary influences to which cells within a multicellular whole organism are exposed'. Haberlandt was the first person to culture isolated, fully differentiated cells as early as 1898 and the above lines are cited from the English translation of his classic paper presented in 1902 in which he described the results of his pioneering experiments (Krikorian and Berquam, 1969).
Content
- Introductory history
- Laboratory requirements and general techniques
- Tissue culture media
- Cell culture
- Cellular totipotency
- Somatic embryogenesis
- Haploid production
- Triploid production
- Variant selection
- In vitro pollination and fertilization
- Zygotic embryo culture
- Protoplast isolation and culture
- Somatic hybridization and cybridization
- Genetic engineering
- Production of pathogen-free plants
- Clonal propagation
- Production of secondary metabolites
- Germplasm storage
Download PDF Theoretical Aerodynamics by Ethirajan Rathakrisnan
Sinopsis
Aerodynamics is the science concerned with the motion of
air and bodies moving through air. In other words, aerodynamics is a branch of
dynamics concerned with the study of motion of air, particularly when it
interacts with a moving object. The forces acting on bodies moving through the
air are termed aerodynamic forces. Air is a fluid, and
in accordance with Archimedes principle, an aircraft will be buoyed up by a
force equal to the weight of air displaced by it. The buoyancy force Fb will act vertically
upwards. The weight W of the aircraft is a force which
acts vertically downwards; thus the magnitude of the net force acting on an
aircraft, even when it is not moving, is . The force will act
irrespective of whether the aircraft is at rest or in motion.
Now, let us consider an aircraft flying with constant speed V through still air, as shown in Figure 1.1, that is, any motion of air is solely due to
the motion of the aircraft. Let this motion of the aircraft is maintained by a
tractive force T exerted by the engines.
Download PDF INTRODUCTION TO SUPERSTRING THEORY by Elias Kiritsis
Sinopsis
String theory has been the leading candidate over the past years for a theory that consistently unifies all fundamental forces of nature, including gravity. In a sense, the theory predicts gravity and gauge symmetry around flat space. Moreover, the theory is UVfinite. The elementary objects are one-dimensional strings whose vibration modes should correspond to the usual elementary particles.
Content
- Introduction
- Historical perspective
- Classical string theory
- Quantization of the bosonic string
- Interactions and loop amplitudes
- Conformal field theory
- CFT on the torus
- Scattering amplitudes and vertex operators of bosonic strings
- Strings in background fields and low-energy effective actions
- Superstrings and supersymmetry
- Anomalies
- Loop corrections to effective couplings in string theory
- Non-perturbative string dualities: a foreword
- Outlook
