Download PDF Intergrated Principles Of Zoology ELEVENTH EDITION by CLEVELAND P. HICKMAN

Sinopsis

We gain knowledge of the animal world not in a passive or haphazard manner but by actively applying important guiding principles to our investigations. Just as the exploration of outer space is both guided and limited by available technologies, exploration of the animal world depends critically on our questions, methods, and principles. The body of knowledge that we call zoology makes sense only when the principles that we use to construct it are clear.

The principles of modern zoology have a long history and many sources. Some principles derive from the laws of physics and chemistry, which all living systems obey. Others derive from the scientific method, which tells us that our hypotheses regarding the animal world are useless unless they guide us to gather data that potentially can refute them. Many important principles derive from previous studies of the living world, of which animals are one part. Principles of heredity, variation, and organic evolution guide the study of life from the simplest unicellular forms to the most complex animals, fungi, and plants. Because all of life shares a common evolutionary origin, principles learned from the study of one group often may be applied to other groups as well. By tracing the origins of our operating principles, we see that zoologists are not an island unto themselves but form an integrated part of the scientific community.

We begin our study of zoology not by focusing narrowly within the animal world, but by searching broadly for our most basic principles and their diverse sources. These principles simultaneously guide our studies of animals and integrate those studies into the broader context of human knowledge.

Zoology, the scientific study of animal life, builds on centuries of human inquiry into the animal world. The mythologies of nearly every human culture document attempts to solve the mysteries of animal life and its origin. Zoologists now confront these same mysteries with the most advanced methods and technologies developed throughout all branches of science. We start by documenting the diversity of animal life and organizing it in a systematic way. This complex and exciting process builds on the contributions of thousands of zoologists working in all dimensions of the biosphere (Figure 1-1). We strive through this work to understand how animal diversity originated and how animals perform the basic processes of life that permit them to thrive in many diverse environments. This chapter introduces the fundamental properties of animal life, the methodological principles on which their study is based, and two important theories that guide our research: (1) the theory of evolution, which is the central organizing principle of biology, and (2) the chromosomal theory of inheritance, which guides our study of heredity and variation in animals. These theories unify our knowledge of the animal world.

Content

1. Introduction to the Living Animal
2. Life: Biological Principles and the Science of Zoology 
3. The Origin and Chemistry of Life
4. Cells as Units of Life 
5. Cellular Metabolism 
6. Continuity and Evolution of Animal Life
7. Principles of Genetics:A Review
8. Organic Evolution 
9. The Reproductive Process 
10. Principles of Development
11. The Diversity of Animal Life
12. Architectural Pattern of an Animal 
13. Classification and Phylogeny of Animals 
14. Protozoan Groups 
15. Mesozoa and Parazoa 
16. Radiate Animals
17. Acoelomate Animals 
18. Pseudocoelomate Animals 
19. Molluscs 
20. Segmented Worms 
21. Arthropods 
22. Aquatic Mandibulates 
23. Terrestrial Mandibulates 
24. Lesser Protostomes 
25. Lophophorate Animals 
26. Echinoderms 
27. Chaetognaths and Hemichordates
28. Chordates 
29. Fishes 
30. Early Tetrapods and Modern Amphibians 
31. Reptilian Groups 
32. Birds 
33. Mammals
34. Activity of Life
35. Support, Protection, and Movement 
36. Homeostasis 
37. Internal Fluids and Respiration
38. Digestion and Nutrition 
39. Nervous Coordination 
40. Chemical Coordination 
41. Immunity 
42. The Animal and Its Environment
43. The Biosphere and Animal Distribution 
44. Animal Ecology Animal Behavior

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Download PDF Zoology, Fifth Edition by Miller Harley

Sinopsis

Animals are united with all other forms of life by the biological processes that they share with other organisms. Understanding these processes helps us to know how animals function and why animals are united with other forms of life from the evolutionary and ecological perspectives. Chapter 1 examines some of these unifying themes and sets the stage for the evolutionary and ecological perspectives that are developed throughout this book. An understanding of the cell as the fundamental unit of life is key to understanding life on this planet. As you learn more about cell structure and function, you will find that many cellular components and processes are very similar in cells from a variety of organisms. One of the common functions of all cells is reproduction. Reproduction may involve individual cells within a multicellular organism, a single-celled organism, or the formation of single reproductive cells in multicelluar organisms. The processes involved in cellular reproduction, and the processes involved in determining the characteristics of the new cells and organisms that are produced, are based on common biological themes. Chapters 2 and 3 present cell structure and inheritance as an important, unifying framework within which biologists approach the diversity of organisms.

Principles of inheritance explain not only why offspring resemble their parents, but also why variation exists within populations. This variation is a key to understanding evolution. All organisms have an evolutionary history, and evolution helps us to understand the life-shaping experiences that all organisms share. Chapter 4 explores the work of pioneers of evolutionary theory, Charles Darwin and Alfred Russell Wallace, and how their work forms the nucleus for modern evolutionary theory. Chapter 5 examines the influence of modern genetics on evolutionary theory. This coverage of evolution will provide core knowledge for understanding the diversity of animal life presented in Part Two and how evolution has influenced the animal structure and function described in Part Three.

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Download PDF The Human Zoo A Zoologist's Classic Study of the Urban Animal 1996 by Desmond Morris

Sinopsis

hen the pressures of modern living become heavy, the harassed city-dweller often refers to his teeming world as a concrete jungle. This is a colourful way of describing the pattern of life in a dense urban community, but it is also grossly inaccurate, as anyone who has studied a real jungle will confirm.

Under normal conditions, in their natural habitats, wild animals do not mutilate themselves, masturbate, attack their offspring, develop stomach ulcers, become fetishists, suffer from obesity, form homosexual pair-bonds, or commit murder. Among human city-dwellers, needless to say, all of these things occur. Does this, then, reveal a basic difference between the human species and other animals? At first glance it seems to do so. But this is deceptive. Other animals do behave in these ways under certain circumstances, namely when they are confined in the unnatural conditions of captivity. The zoo animal in a cage exhibits all these abnormalities that we know so well from our human companions. Clearly, then, the city is not a concrete jungle, it is a human zoo.

The comparison we must make is not between the city-dweller and the wild animal, but between the city-dweller and the captive animal. The modern human animal is no longer living in conditions natural for his species. Trapped, not by a zoo collector, but by his own brainy brilliance, he has set himself up in a huge, restless menagerie where he is in constant danger of cracking under the strain.

Despite the pressures, however, the benefits are great. The zoo world, like a gigantic parent, protects its inmates: food, drink, shelter, hygiene and medical care are provided; the basic problems of survival are reduced to a minimum. There is time to spare. How this time is used in a non-human zoo varies, of course, from species to species. Some animals quietly relax and doze in the sun; others find prolonged inactivity increasingly difficult to accept. If you are an inmate of a human zoo, you inevitably belong to this second category. Having an essentially exploratory, inventive brain, you will not be able to relax for very long. You will be driven on and on to more and more elaborate activities. You will investigate, organize and create and, in the end, you will have plunged yourself deeper still into an even more captive zoo world. With each new complexity, you will find yourself one step farther away from your natural tribal state, the state in which your ancestors existed for a million years.

The story of modern man is the story of his struggle to deal with the consequences of this difficult advance. The picture is confused and confusing, partly because of its very complexity and partly because we are involved in it in a dual role, being, at the same time, both spectators and participants. Perhaps it will become clearer if we view it from the zoologist’s standpoint, and this is what I shall attempt to do in the pages that follow. In most cases I have deliberately selected examples which will be familiar to Western readers. This does not mean, however, that I intend my conclusions to relate only to Western cultures. On the contrary, there is every indication that the underlying principles apply equally to city-dwellers throughout the world.

If I seem to be saying ‘Go back, you are heading for disaster,’ let me assure you that I am not. We have, in our relentless social progress, gloriously unleashed our powerful inventive, exploratory urges. They are a basic part of our biological inheritance. There is nothing artificial or unnatural about them. They provide us with our great strength as well as our great weaknesses. What I am trying to show is the increasing price we have to pay for indulging them and the ingenious ways in which we contrive to meet that price, no matter how steep it becomes. The stakes are rising higher all the time, the game becoming more risky, the casualties more startling, the pace more breathless. But despite the hazards it is the most exciting game the world has ever seen. It is foolish to suggest that anyone should blow a whistle and try to stop it. Nevertheless, there are different ways of playing it, and if we can understand better the true nature of the players it should be possible to make the game even more rewarding, without at the same time becoming more dangerous and, ultimately, disastrous for the whole species.

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Download PDF The Naked Ape. A Zoologists Study of the Human Animal 1999 by Desmond Morris

Sinopsis

There are one hundred and ninety-three living species of monkeys and apes. One hundred and ninety-two of them are covered with hair. The exception is a naked ape self-named Homo sapiens. This unusual and highly successful species spends a great deal of time examining his higher motives and an equal amount of time studiously ignoring his fundamental ones. He is proud that he has the biggest brain of all the primates, but attempts to conceal the fact that he also has the biggest penis, preferring to accord this honour falsely to the mighty gorilla. He is an intensely vocal, acutely exploratory, over-crowded ape, and it is high time we examined his basic behaviour.

I am a zoologist and the naked ape is an animal. He is therefore fair game for my pen and I refuse to avoid him any longer simply because some of his behaviour patterns are rather complex and impressive. My excuse is that, in becoming so erudite, Homo sapiens has remained a naked ape nevertheless; in acquiring lofty new motives, he has lost none of the earthy old ones. This is frequently a cause of some embarrassment to him, but his old impulses have been with him for millions of years, his new ones only a few thousand at the most—and there is no hope of quickly shrugging off the accumulated genetic legacy of his whole evolutionary past. He would be a far less worried and more fulfilled animal if only he would face up to this fact. Perhaps this is where the zoologist can help.

One of the strangest features of previous studies of naked-ape behaviour is that they have nearly always avoided the obvious. The earlier anthropologists rushed off to all kinds of unlikely comers of the world in order to unravel the basic truth about our nature, scattering to remote cultural backwaters so atypical and unsuccessful that they are nearly extinct. They then returned with startling facts about the bizarre mating customs, strange kinship systems, or weird ritual procedures of these tribes, and used this material as though it were of central importance to the behaviour of our species as a whole. The work done by these investigators was, of course, extremely interesting and most valuable in showing us what can happen when a group of naked apes becomes side-tracked into a cultural blind alley. It revealed just how far from the normal our behaviour patterns can stray without a complete social collapse. What it did not tell us was anything about the typical behaviour of typical naked apes. This can only be done by examining the common behaviour patterns that are shared by all the ordinary, successful members of the major cultures —the mainstream specimens who together represent the vast majority. Biologically, this is the only sound approach. Against this, the old-style anthropologist would have argued that his technologically simple tribal groups are nearer the heart of the matter than the members of advanced civilizations. I submit that this is not so. The simple tribal groups that are living today are not primitive, they are stultified. Truly primitive tribes have not existed for thousands of years. The naked ape is essentially an exploratory species and any society that has failed to advance has in some sense failed, ‘gone wrong’. Something has happened to it to hold it back, something that is working against the natural tendencies of the species to explore and investigate the world around it. The characteristics that the earlier anthropologists studied in these tribes may well be the very features that have interfered with the progress of the groups concerned. It is therefore dangerous to use this information as the basis for any general scheme of our behaviour as a species.

Psychiatrists and psycho-analysts, by contrast, have stayed nearer home and have concentrated on clinical studies of mainstream specimens. Much of their earlier material, although not suffering from the weakness of the anthropological information, also has an unfortunate bias. The individuals on which they have based their pronouncements are, despite their mainstream background, inevitably aberrant or failed specimens in some respect. If they were healthy, successful and therefore typical individuals, they would not have had to seek psychiatric aid and would not have contributed to the psychiatrists’ store of information. Again, I do not wish to belittle the value of this research. It has given us an immensely important insight into the way in which our behaviour patterns can break down. I simply feel that in attempting to discuss the fundamental biological nature of our species as a whole, it is unwise to place too great an emphasis on the earlier anthropological and psychiatric findings.

(I should add that the situation in anthropology and psychiatry is changing rapidly. Many modern research workers in these fields are recognizing die limitations of the earlier investigations and are turning more and more to studies of typical, healthy individuals. As one investigator expressed it recently: ‘We have put the cart before the horse. We have tackled the abnormals and we are only now beginning, a little late in the day, to concentrate on the normals.’)

The approach I propose to use in this book draws its material from three main sources: (1) the information about our past as unearthed by palaeontologists and based on the fossil and other remains of our ancient ancestors; (2) the information available from the animal behaviour studies of the comparative ethologists, based on detailed observations of a wide range of animal species, especially our closest living relatives, the monkeys and apes; and (3) the information that can be assembled by simple, direct observation of the most basic and widely shared behaviour patterns of the successful mainstream specimens from the major contemporary cultures of the naked ape itself.

Because of the size of the task, it will be necessary to oversimplify in some manner. The way I shall do this is largely to ignore the detailed ramifications of technology and verbalization, and concentrate instead on those aspects of our lives that have obvious counterparts in other species: such activities as feeding, grooming, sleeping, fighting, mating and care of the young. When faced with these fundamental problems, how does the naked ape react? How do his reactions compare with those of other monkeys and apes? In which particular respect is he unique, and how do his oddities relate to his special evolutionary story?

In dealing with these problems I realize that I shall run the risk of offending a number of people. There are some who will prefer not to contemplate their animal selves. They may consider that I have degraded our species by discussing it in crude animal terms. I can only assure them that this is not my intention. There are others who will resent any zoological invasion of their specialist arena. But I believe that this approach can be of great value and that, whatever its shortcomings, it will throw new (and in some ways unexpected) light on the complex nature of our extraordinary species.
 

Content

1. Introduction
2. Chapter One: ORIGINS
3. Chapter Two: SEX
4. Chapter Three: REARING
5. Chapter Four: EXPLORATION
6. Chapter Five: FIGHTING
7. Chapter Six: FEEDING
8. Chapter Seven: COMFORT
9. Chapter Eight: ANIMALS

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