Sinopsis
Biomechanics is a branch of the field of bioengineering, which we define as the application of engineering principles to biological systems. Most bioengineering is applied to humans, and in this book the primary emphasis will be on Homo sapiens. The bioengineer seeks to understand basic physiological processes, to improve human health via applied problem solving, or both. This is a difficult task, since the workings of the body are formidably complex. Despite this difficulty, the bioengineer’s contribution can be substantial, and the rewards for success far outweigh the difficulties of the task.
Biomechanics is the study of how physical forces interact with living systems. If you are not familiar with biomechanics, this might strike you as a somewhat esoteric topic, and you may even ask yourself the question: Why does biomechanics matter? It turns out that biomechanics is far from esoteric and plays an important role in diverse areas of growth, development, tissue remodeling and homeostasis.
We can learn more about the field of biomechanics by looking at its history. In one sense, biomechanics is a fairly young discipline, having been recognized as an independent subject of enquiry with its own body of knowledge, societies, journals, and conferences for only around 30–40 years. For example, the “Biomechanics and Human Factors Division” (later to become the “Bioengineering Division”) of the American Society of Mechanical Engineering was established in late 1966. The International Society of Biomechanicswas founded August 30, 1973; the European Society of Biomechanics was established May 21, 1976, and the Japanese Society of Biomechanics was founded December 1, 1984. On the other hand, people have been interested in biomechanics for hundreds of years, although it may not have been called “biomechanics” when they were doing it. Here we take a quick look back through history and identify some of the real pioneers in the field. Note that the summary below is far from exhaustive but serves to give an overview of the history of the field; the interested reader may also refer to Chapter 1 of Fung [14] or Chapter 1 of Mow and Huiskes [15].
Galileo Galilei (1564–1642) was a Pisan who began his university training in medicine but quickly became attracted to mathematics and physics. Galileo was a giant in science, who, among other accomplishments, was the first to use a telescope to observe the night sky (thus making important contributions in astronomy) and whose synthesis of observation, mathematics, and deductive reasoning firmly established the science that we now call mechanics.3 Galileo, as part of his studies on the mechanics of cantilevered beams, deduced some basic principles of how bone dimensions must scale with the size of the animal. For example, he realized that the cross-sectional dimensions of the long bones would have to increase more quickly than the length of the bone to support the weight of a larger animal [17]. He also looked into the biomechanics of jumping, and the way in which loads are distributed in large aquatic animals, such as whales. However, Galileo was really only a “dabbler” in biomechanics; to meet someone who tackled the topic more directly, we must head north and cross the English Channel.
William Harvey (1578–1657) was an English physician who made fundamental contributions to our understanding of the physiology of the cardiovascular system, and who can be rightly thought of as one of the first biomechanicians (Fig. 1.1). Before Harvey, the state of knowledge about the cardiovascular system was primitive at best, being based primarily on the texts of the Roman physician Galen (129–199?). Galen believed that the veins distributed blood to the body, while arteries contained pneuma, a mixture of “vital spirits,” air, and a small amount of blood. It was thought that the venous and arterial systems were not in communication except through tiny perforations in the interventricular septum separating the two halves of the heart, so the circulatory system did not form a closed loop. Venous blood was thought to be produced by the liver from food, after which it flowed outward to the tissues and was then consumed as fuel by the body.
Content
- Introduction
- A brief history of biomechani
- Cellular biomechanics
- Introduction to eukaryotic cellular architecture
- The cell’s energy system
- Overview of the cytoskeleton
- Cell–matrix interactions Methods to measure the mechanical properties of cells and biomolecules
- Models of cellular biomechanical behavior
- Mechanotransduction: how do cells sense and respond to mechanical events?
- Techniques for mechanical stimulation of cells
- Summary of mechanobiological effects on cells in selected tissues
- Hemodynamics
- Blood rheology
- Large artery hemodynamics
- Blood flow in small vessels
- The circulatory system
- Anatomy of the vasculature
- The heart
- Arterial pulse propagation
- The capillaries
- The veins
- Scaling of hemodynamic variables
- The interstitium
- Interstitial fluid flow
- Ocular biomechanics
- Ocular anatomy
- Biomechanics of glaucoma
- Ocular blood flow
- The respiratory system
- Gross anatomy
- Biomechanics of breathing
- Lung elasticity and surface tension effects
- Mass transfer
- Particle transport in the lung
- Muscles and movement
- Skeletal muscle morphology and physiology
- Muscle constitutive modeling
- Whole muscle mechanics
- Muscle/bone interactions
- Skeletal biomechanics
- Composition and structure of bone
- Biomechanical properties of cortical and trabecular bone
- Bone fracture and failure mechanics
- Functional adaptation and mechanobiology
- The design of bone
- Introduction to soft connective tissues
- Structure of collagen
- Structure of ligament, tendon, and cartilage
- Biomechanical properties of ligament, tendon, and cartilage
- Terrestrial locomotion
- Jumping
- Description of walking and running
- Gait analysis
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